7.2A FURTHER SIGNIFICANT PEOPLE AND SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

Ensure you read the additional introductory comments before you read this section.

There are many people and schools of thought that could be examined in Christianity. The people and schools of thought discussed here include those mentioned in the syllabus. Students should be careful if selecting another person or school and should also be careful in their selection from within this list as the significance varies greatly.

The Cambridge Studies of Religion textbook discusses two significant people: Paul of Tarsus, considered one of the founders of Christianity, and Hildegard of Bingen, a significant woman from the Middle Ages.

Martin Luther

Life and ideas

Martin Luther (1483–1546 CE) was a key reformer of the Christian church – in fact, the Reformation is considered to have been started by Luther. Luther was born in Eislebin in Germany. He studied law, then theology, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1507. He experienced a dramatic conversion during a thunderstorm. He was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and in 1512 became Professor of Biblical Studies. Luther had long held a view of a wrathful God and feared God’s judgement. While reading the New Testament Book of Romans, Luther came to believe that salvation was a matter of faith, not works, church traditions or payment, which led to a crisis of conscience. Luther had been influenced by the Greek and Latin translations of the New Testament by Desiderius Erasmus, a Dutch Catholic scholar, whose translations of the sacred texts raised questions about traditional Catholic interpretations of the scriptures.

Luther’s study of the Bible led him to reject the traditional teachings and practices of the church, particularly the sale of indulgences (where a person could buy their way out of purgatory, the intermediate state between death and Heaven). Luther came to believe that salvation could be gained by faith alone. This was the doctrine of ‘justification by grace through faith’, drawn from the writings of St Paul, which became the cornerstone of the Reformation that was to come.

In 1517, Luther nailed to the door of Wittenberg Cathedral his 95 Theses, which were matters for debate. His intention was to begin discussion on the issues in the Church he saw as contrary to the Bible. This was an accepted practice and a means of beginning debate. It is unlikely that Martin Luther wanted to lead a revolution that would result in a split in the Christian church.

Luther also became caught up in the political machinations of his day, and soon became involved in a power struggle that was not only theological but political. He was supported by Prince Frederick of Saxony, who wanted to assert his own power against the Italian-dominated Church. Luther proved to be a convenient weapon in Frederick’s arsenal.

Luther was summoned to Rome by Pope Leo X and took part in a famous debate where he denied the infallibility of the Pope and the Church Councils. Luther also took part in a famous debate called the Diet of Worms, held at the city of Worms.

He was excommunicated from the church in 1521 and his life was threatened. By being excommunicated, Luther was considered to be outside the church and thus unable to be ‘saved’. Luther was protected by the German princes, hidden for several years in Wartburg Castle, and was supported in his return to teaching. He eventually married a former nun, Katherine von Bora, and they had five children.

Contribution

Luther translated the New Testament into German, one of the most significant early works in the German language. Previously the Bible was only available in Latin. The recent invention of the printing press enabled his ideas to be spread through Europe, a particularly significant innovation that provided major impetus to the Reformation. In 1530, Lutheran beliefs were outlined in the Augsburg Confession, drawn up by a colleague of Luther, Philip Melanchthon. By the time Luther died in 1546, the Lutheran Church was established in Germany and Scandinavia and his ideas and actions had begun the Reformation.

Among Luther’s more significant theological ideas and teachings were:

• grace alone, faith alone, scripture alone – Luther’s key beliefs that are considered the catchcry of the Reformation
• the doctrine of justification by grace through faith
• the Bible is the final authority in all things
• the Bible should be available in the language of the people
• priesthood of all believers, which means all people can approach God directly
• two sacraments only, baptism and Holy Communion (not seven as the Catholic Church taught).

Impact

The Reformation led to further splits in the church across Europe and the beginning of the Protestant Church. Luther’s ideas influenced people such as Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich and John Calvin in Geneva who became leaders of the Reformation. The Lutheran Church is still the largest Protestant Church today, with about 80 million followers. Many modern churches consider themselves Protestant churches, including the Uniting Church of Australia.

Martin Luther had a very significant influence on the Christian church. The Reformation was one of the most important events in the history of the church, and the unity of the Western Church was never recovered. The Catholic Church responded with the Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation) that reviewed the teachings of the Church and as a result either reaffirmed or corrected practices and teaching.

The Lutheran Church is an influential Christian church in Europe, and the theology of Luther and the Reformation is considered the important Christian theology of the Protestant Church today. Luther is also considered a significant contributor to the development of the German language through his translation of the Bible and other written works.

Summary

In the sixteenth century Martin Luther began the Reformation, one of the most significant events in the history of the church. Luther’s actions and theology have influenced modern Christianity in the formation of the Protestant variant of Christianity. His influence has continued through to the modern church.

Catherine Booth

Life and ideas

Catherine Booth was born Catherine Mumford in Derbyshire, England on 17 January 1829. She was brought up in a strongly Christian home and had a sincere faith from an early age. It is reported that she had read the Bible eight times by the age of 12. She was a sickly child and developed curvature of the spine when 14 years old, and tuberculosis four years later. While she was ill she developed a keen social conscience and wrote a number of articles against drinking alcohol. She also joined the Temperance Society (which opposed the abuse of alcohol) and the Band of Hope, a children’s group opposed to alcohol and committed to Christ-like living. Catherine was greatly concerned about social problems and social justice issues in England, often caused by limited employment and made worse through difficult living conditions.

In 1852 Catherine met William Booth, a Methodist minister who shared her views on social justice and reform and concern for the poor in English society. She had developed a strong feminist attitude that was not shared by William. They argued about the role of women in the church; William begrudgingly accepted the idea of Catherine preaching, but said he ‘would not like it’. William’s views reflected the generally held attitude of Christians at that time that women should take a submissive role in the church and keep silent during church services. William Booth and Catherine Mumford married on 16 June 1855 at Stockwell Green Congregational Church.

Despite her attitude and her involvement in speaking at children’s meetings, Catherine did not preach until 1860. When she did, William was so impressed that he immediately changed his view on women preachers. Catherine was also involved in speaking in homes and helping people give up alcohol. In 1864, William and Catherine began the Christian Mission in London’s East End. It became known as the Salvation Army in 1878.

Catherine was a frequent preacher at the meetings of the Salvation Army and on London’s docklands. She and William often preached in the open air and raised considerable hostility from other churches. Lord Shaftesbury, a well-known social reformer, politician and Christian leader, went as far as describing William Booth as ‘the Anti-Christ’.

Contribution

One of the complaints from other Christians was that the Salvation Army allowed women to have equal status and rights as men. However, the Anglican Archbishop of York recognised that the Salvation Army was ministering to people that the Church of England was unable to reach. Catherine was involved in speaking against wealthy people who ignored the squalid living conditions of the poor, exploited them in the workplace or forced women into prostitution.

The Salvation Army developed into a quasi-military organisation in name only. It had military ranks, and both William and Catherine were generals. Catherine is often called the ‘mother of the Army’. She was involved in designing the Salvation Army flag and bonnets for the women. The uniforms were developed to overcome the reluctance of people to attend church in their ragged clothing, providing an alternative without social stigma and embarrassment.

William and Catherine were particularly concerned about the issue of sweated labour – women and children working long hours for little pay in poor conditions. One particular issue was the making of matches. In England, matches were made from yellow phosphorus which caused a disease known as ‘Phossy Jaw’ (necrosis of the bone). The manufacturers claimed it was too expensive to change to the safer red phosphorus. The Salvation Army opened its own factory, using the safer material and paying the workers double the wages of the commercial manufacturers. Eventually this led to changes across the industry.

William and Catherine had eight children, all of whom were involved in the Salvation Army. Two, William Bramwell and Evangeline, became generals of the Salvation Army. Ballington Booth became Commander of the Salvation Army in Australia from 1883 to 1885.

Catherine Booth died in her husband’s arms of cancer on 4 October 1890 at the age of 61. She is buried with William in London.

Impact

Catherine Booth was an exceptional woman, a woman before her time. As a strong feminist and an active social reformer, she was responsible for much of the mission and work of the Salvation Army. She was involved in developing the Army’s beliefs and practices, and that influence has lasted down the years. Her support for women preachers has translated into a wide acceptance of female leadership within the Salvation Army, and her campaigns to overcome social injustice have been models for Christians, male and female, in the years since. The Salvation Army is one of the world’s foremost charitable organisations as well as an effective Christian church. While William Booth is often recognised as the founder of the Salvation Army it is clear the work was a joint effort that included a significant contribution from Catherine Booth. The Salvation Army continues its work today across the world, including Australia. It is widely recognised as an important part of the Christian church, reaching out to people in need, providing a range of welfare services and ministering to a section of the population who often have little to do with the traditional church.

Summary

Catherine Mumford Booth was a feminist Christian woman of the nineteenth century who was concerned about the role of women in the church and the plight of the poor. As a social reformer she created the Salvation Army with her husband, William Booth. The Salvation Army continues to work with the disadvantaged today.

Pope John XXIII

Life and ideas

Pope John XXIII was born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (1881–1963 CE) in northern Italy. His origins were humble; his father was a peasant and he was one of fourteen children.

In 1904 Roncalli was ordained a priest, trained as a historian and became papal nuncio (an appointment similar to ambassador) to Bulgaria, Turkey and France after World War II. In 1953 he became an archbishop of Venice and then a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1958, at the age of 76, he was elected Pope of the Roman Catholic Church and took the name John XXIII. He was recognised as a man of great kindness, energy, ability and wit. Originally, many thought he would simply be a ‘caretaker pope’ who would bring few changes until a younger man could be elected. However, Pope John XXIII began a new age within the Catholic Church and brought reform and innovation to a staid, conservative church.

At the time of John XXIII’s election, the Catholic Church was experiencing difficulties. It had become entrenched in conservative theological beliefs and practices. The Council of Trent, held from 1545 to 1563 to counter the teachings of the Reformation, still influenced the teaching of the Catholic Church in the mid-twentieth century. The church had reacted poorly to new ideas: all priests had to take a vow against modernism, and the liturgy was conducted in Latin the world over. The world was changing, but the Catholic Church was not adapting its traditions. Many converts had been made in Third World countries, new forms of Bible study and interpretation were being discovered, and the rise of Pentecostal and charismatic influences had begun. There was also a push from the church laity for greater involvement in the church. The Catholic Church was unable to cope with these changes and often resorted to enforcing entrenched ideas and judgements.

Pope Pius XI, John XXIII’s predecessor, had called for some research into new methods of Bible study in 1943, but little freedom had been given to Catholic scholars.

Contribution

In 1962 John XXIII called the Second Vatican Council, which lasted until 1965. It was to be one of the most significant councils in the history of the Catholic Church, and its influence extended across the whole Christian faith, including Protestantism. The Second Vatican Council became the start of real change within the Catholic Church.

John XXIII opened the Council with a significant address, expressing his expectation that the Council would be a chance to renew the church, and that there would be a ‘leap forward’ in the understanding of the church’s teaching and Catholic conscience. The liberals within the church believed they had the chance, even the permission, to bring renewal. Pope John XXIII died during the proceedings of the Council in 1963, but his influence lived on.

John XXIII also sought to bring reform to the church through his own actions, including:

• urging reconciliation in world political crises such as Berlin and Cuba
• including many Third World Catholics among the ranks of bishops and cardinals
• seeking closer ties with the Orthodox Church
• sending representatives to the World Council of Churches
• setting up the Vatican Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity
• creating a commission to revise canon law
• aiming to update the church (known as aggiornamento).

The Second Vatican Council made significant changes to the Catholic Church, and indeed to the whole Christian church. Among the most significant changes were:

• removal of the three ills of the church:
  – triumphalism – belief that the Catholic Church alone held the truth
  – clericalism – the emphasis on clergy and exclusion of laity
  – juridicism – legalism to the detriment of people
• renewed study of the Bible
• revision of church teachings in some areas
• renewed role for the laity
• relationship of the Catholic Church to other churches and religious traditions
• church services to be conducted in local languages (the vernacular).

Impact

Pope John XXIII was largely responsible for the climate of change within the Roman Catholic Church that came through his own ideas and example and through calling the Second Vatican Council. The publication of his personal journal after his death, Journey of a Soul, revealed a deep traditional piety. This journal, together with his reforms and his own personality, ensured that Pope John XXIII became a much-loved and respected figure by Catholic and non-Catholic Christians throughout the world. Latin American theologians, who were developing ideas of liberation theology (see the section on liberation theology later in this chapter), believed they were encouraged to explore these ideas by John XXIII.

John XXIII is affectionately remembered as ‘the good pope’ and was beatified on 3 September 2000. He was canonised by Pope Francis on 27th April 2014 and his feast day is celebrated on June 3. John XXIII was not just a leader to the Roman Catholic Church – he is recognised as a ‘renewer of the church’ by both the Anglican and Lutheran churches. It is certainly true that Pope John XXIII brought significant change to the Catholic Church, but also to Christianity as a whole. The opportunity existed for greater relevance to the church’s immediate community, increased lay participation and a freedom of expression that had been denied for centuries. Arguably, over time, Pope John XXIII has had a greater influence on Christianity outside the Catholic Church, but has also brought significant change to his own church.

Summary

Elected a ‘caretaker pope’ in 1962, Giuseppe Roncalli became Pope John XXIII. A devout and pious man, he was expected to achieve little in his papacy. With the calling of the Second Vatican Council, however, he instituted one of the most significant changes in the Catholic Church and influenced Protestant Christianity as well. He is remembered as one of the most significant and innovative church leaders of the twentieth century.

Billy Graham

Life and ideas

Billy Graham (born William Franklin Graham Jr) is one of the most recognisable Christians of the twentieth century. Born in Charlotte, North Carolina in the USA on 7 November 1918, he was the son of a dairy farmer and was raised in the Presbyterian Church. Billy (as he preferred to be known) was converted at a Baptist revival meeting in 1934, led by Mordecai Ham, but was considered unsuitable to be accepted into the church youth group.

Graham attended Bob Jones College (a conservative religious college) after finishing high school, but found it too rigid and legalistic and left after one semester. Bob Jones commented he could expect to be a ‘poor country Baptist preacher somewhere out in the sticks’. He transferred to the Florida Bible Institute, gaining a Bachelor of Theology, and he practised his preaching to the birds, alligators and tree stumps on an island in the Hillsborough River.

In 1943 Graham graduated with a degree in anthropology from Wheaton College in Illinois. He was greatly influenced by his Bible school teacher, Henrietta Mears, who helped him believe the Bible is the infallible word of God, a concept that has motivated much of his ministry. While at Wheaton, Graham met and married Ruth Bell, a daughter of missionaries who worked in China. They married in 1943, soon after graduation, and had five children. Ruth died in 2007.

In 1944 Graham took over a failing radio program in Chicago called ‘Songs in the Night’. This was his first move into the mass media, and he recruited longtime associate George Beverly Shea as director of his radio ministry. Shea became a significant singer on Graham’s later crusades. Graham contracted mumps in 1945, which derailed his plans to be an army chaplain. On his recovery he co-founded the youth ministry Youth for Christ, then conducted a series of circus-tent revival meetings in Los Angeles in 1949. It was here that Billy Graham became known as an evangelist – one who preaches the gospel of Jesus Christ and calls for a commitment to follow him.

Billy Graham (and twentieth-century American Christianity) was greatly influenced by evangelicalism, which emphasises the need for personal conversion, the authority of the Bible, the centrality of the cross of Jesus and personal activism.

The ‘crusades’, as Graham called them, were a tremendous success and he became a national figure, helped largely by positive reports that were provided by media mogul William Randolph Hearst. It is reported that, for some unknown reason, though possibly due to Graham’s patriotism and youth appeal, Hearst advised his newspaper editors to ‘puff Graham’ (that is to give him good publicity) during his crusades. Billy Graham soon became a national identity, a reality that has followed him most of his life.

Contribution

Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association in 1950 and it moved into several areas of outreach including radio, television, newspaper, magazine and film production. He established the long-running Christian magazine Christianity Today and became a noted media personality. Graham has also written nearly thirty books, including bestsellers such as Angels: God’s Secret Agents, Answers to Life’s Problems and his autobiography Just as I Am.

Graham conducted ‘crusades’ across America and in other parts of the world, including London, New York City and (in 1959) Australia. His crusades grew into an international ministry that saw him return to Australia in 1968 and 1982. He conducted the largest crusade in Seoul, South Korea, with one million people attending one meeting. He spoke behind the Iron Curtain during the Cold War and also in China and North Korea. Graham conducted his last official crusade in New York City in 2005.

It is estimated that Billy Graham has spoken to over 200 million people in almost 200 countries at a crusade, and many more through his various media ministries. Graham has also been instrumental in providing training for other evangelists, and in providing a forum for discussion and research. One of the most significant was the Lausanne Conference of Evangelism, held in 1974, which attracted evangelists from all over the world. These conferences are now held regularly.

Impact

Billy Graham has often been a controversial figure. He has been criticised for calling people to make an emotional commitment to Christ, rather than a considered decision. He opposed segregation during the 1960s, and refused to speak to segregated audiences in the USA and in South Africa during the apartheid era. On one occasion he helped bail Martin Luther King from jail, and invited King to join him on his 1957 crusade in New York.

Graham refused to join Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority group, and although a member of the Democratic party in the USA, has supported politicians from both the Republicans and Democrats. He has befriended most American presidents since Harry Truman, and his friendship with Richard Nixon was of particular concern to many critics. Graham has spoken out against Communism and in support of the Cold War policy of the US government. However, he has stated his belief that politics is secondary to the need to preach the Gospel.

Graham was also criticised by his own church, the Southern Baptist Convention, for his apparent support of infant baptism. He has always been careful to avoid criticism about money, a common complaint against evangelists. He and his associates produced a manifesto that addressed several issues of potential concern including money, sexual allegations, criticism from churches and excessive publicity. Graham has also been reported as making anti-Semitic comments, but has been careful to avoid proselytising Jews. In recent years Billy Graham has suggested that people of other religious traditions might be ‘in Heaven’, comments that have angered many conservative Christians in America.

Graham suffers from Parkinson’s disease and has prostate cancer, but still appears in public at special events, such as the Festival of Hope in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina in 2005. He has appointed his son Franklin Graham as his successor at Billy Graham Ministries.

Billy Graham is clearly from the evangelical school of Christianity. He has always preached the need for personal conversion – the repentance of sins and the acceptance of Jesus Christ as an individual’s personal saviour. He holds to the inerrancy of the Bible as the infallible word of God. Graham has been a significant figure in twentieth-century Christianity and was included in TIME Magazine’s ‘Heroes and Icons of the 20th Century’. His influence has particularly been felt in Australia. Some Christian leaders in Australia, were converted at a Billy Graham crusade. It was estimated that 30 per cent of Australia’s population attended the 1959 crusades, and the crusades also had the effect of helping ecumenism and inter-church cooperation in Australia.

Summary

Billy Graham has been one of the most influential Christians of the twentieth century and has become widely known as an evangelist. His evangelistic crusades have resulted in the conversion of many people. Graham developed many innovative methods of spreading the gospel using the mass media. He has become a powerful figure in the USA and has maintained considerable respect across the world. His impact in Australia was felt for many years after his visits.

Dennis Bennett

Life and ideas

Dennis Bennett was an American Episcopal priest who created a great deal of interest when, on 3 April 1960, he announced he been ‘baptised with the Holy Spirit’.

Bennett was born in the USA on 28 October 1917 and trained as an Episcopal priest. His experience of receiving the ‘baptism of the Holy Spirit’ is recorded in his book Nine O’clock in the Morning. His announcement led to calls from some to resign, saying his experience was inconsistent with Anglicanism and more in keeping with Pentecostalism. His announcement received a great deal of media attention, including articles in TIME and Newsweek, and rather than force the issue or become part of a media circus, Bennett resigned.

Bennett found support in the Bishop of Olympia, Bishop William Fisher Lewis, and went to Seattle where he was appointed Rector of St Luke’s Church. At this stage, Dennis was married with three children. In 1963 his wife Erica died, and he married his second wife Rita three years later. Rita supported Dennis in his ministry of writing and speaking as his fame spread in Christian circles. Bennett remained at St Luke’s until 1981, after twenty-one years of ministry, when he left to begin the Christian Revival Association (he had also founded the Episcopal Renewal Ministries in 1973).

Dennis Bennett died on 1 November 1991. At his funeral service, Reverend Dick O’Driscoll noted that people all over the world, from Africa to Switzerland, from England to the USA, had been inspired and influenced by his words and work.

Contribution

Bennett’s experience, the baptism of the Holy Spirit, is recorded in the New Testament book of Acts (chapter 2). The experience became the distinguishing mark of the Pentecostal churches, and those who shared the experience usually left their own churches to join a Pentecostal church. Bennett sought to remain in his own denomination, and many who shared similar experiences also wished to remain to bring new life to the traditional churches. For them the term ‘charismatic’ was coined. Charismatic is derived from the Greek word ‘charisma’ which means ‘gift’, a reference to the gift of the Holy Spirit.

This desire to remain in the churches was met with some suspicion from the mainstream denominations and the Pentecostals, who considered the main churches beyond saving. The ‘charismatic renewal’ had some issues to deal with. Many believed that people who had shared such an experience needed to join ‘charismatic churches’ and feared services dominated by ‘speaking in tongues’, one of the identified gifts of the Holy Spirit. Others believed that the traditional features of the Episcopal Church, such as the Prayer Book and formal liturgy, needed to be removed, and that the organ needed to be jettisoned and replaced with guitars and chorus singing. In practice, few of these things happened in Dennis Bennett’s church, but a sense of fellowship did develop and increased attendances resulted.

Impact

Dennis Bennett noted that the New Testament records several occasions when baptism of the Holy Spirit occurs to Christian converts. He also noted that the 1928 edition of the Anglican Prayer Book describes the provision for the ‘laying on of hands … [to receive] the strengthening gifts of the Holy Spirit’. He saw his experience as consistent with this and with other Anglican statements, such as the 1938 report ‘Doctrine in the Church of England’ which speaks of ‘receiving the Spirit’. The Anglican Confirmation Service calls for the reading of Acts 8:14–17, a passage that refers to Christians receiving the baptism of the Holy Spirit.

Traditionally, Protestant Christians believe that a ‘second blessing’ is unnecessary, as Christians receive the Holy Spirit at conversion. This has led to some criticism of the charismatic movement.

Bennett was concerned that the charismatic renewal would simply be seen as a program that could be applied to the church, similar to the Oxford movement of the 1800s in England, or the Cursillo movement (a modern renewal movement in the Roman Catholic Church). He believed it was not just an option for Christians to choose, but rather an essential empowering necessary for all Christians. He was also concerned with the watering down of the Pentecostal and charismatic movements by a ‘third wave’ that denied the necessity for baptism of the Holy Spirit. He believed that the charismatic renewal was essential for the future life of the church, redefining its role from a teaching or preaching institution to that of a gifted community.

While Dennis Bennett is not a well-known leader outside the charismatic movement, he was able to combine his experience of the Holy Spirit with a considered theological defence of the charismatic renewal movement. The ‘charismatic movement’ within mainstream Christianity has declined in recent years, to be replaced by the Pentecostal churches, for example, separate denominations such as the Hillsong churches.

Summary

Dennis Bennett was an Episcopal priest in the USA who received the ‘baptism of the Holy Spirit’ in 1960. He saw this experience as essential for the renewal of the church, and worked extensively to ensure that those who shared a similar experience stayed within the church and sought that renewal. Bennett found support for his position in the teachings of the Anglican Church, and is acknowledged as a significant theological thinker in the charismatic movement.

Sarah (Sara) Maitland

Life and ideas

Sarah Maitland is an English author, academic and feminist theologian. Born in 1950, she came from a large family. For a time she was married to a Church of England minister, but now lives alone. Maitland left the Church of England in 1993 and became a Roman Catholic. She has lived in London and Scotland, and now lives in County Durham.

Maitland has become well known as a novelist. She also writes short stories and has written several theological works, her most popular being A Big-Enough God (1994). Her first novel, Daughter of Jerusalem (1978), was an award-winning work and established her reputation as an author.

Sarah Maitland is currently working as a lecturer in creative writing at Lancaster University, and has mentored emerging African writers. She describes her writing as ‘fairy tales for adults’. At one stage she worked with the film director Stanley Kubrick on a screenplay which was never completed; however, some of their ideas appeared in the Steven Spielberg film, Artificial Intelligence: AI.

Impact and contribution

In her theological writing, Sarah Maitland seeks to draw together science and religion. In her book Three Times Table she draws together religious, scientific and mythical language to show that God can be known in many realms of life. She seeks a God who is big enough to stand up to a feminist critique. Her God can be described as wild, even dangerous, and she finds God expressed in forms such as the ‘mechanical saviour doll’ as unconvincing. Sarah Maitland has moved to a more reclusive life and explores the links between mythology and religion in her work.

Summary

Sarah Maitland is an English author and feminist theologian. She has published several works of fiction as well as several theological works. She seeks to understand a God that is bigger than that often depicted by the Christian church.

Liberation theology

Ideas

Liberation theology developed during the latter half of the twentieth century and is a movement primarily involving the Catholic Church in Latin America. It had its roots in the work of evangelists and missionaries who often challenged the work and presence of the church in Latin America. During the era of colonisation the indigenous people of South and Central America were mistreated or disenfranchised. Early Christian leaders sometimes colluded in this, but many others questioned the Church’s role in developing and maintaining injustice in relationship to the poor and indigenous inhabitants of Central and South America.

During the 1950s, as Latin countries developed their economies, the poor people of those countries often became dependent on the richer nations, and there was a rise of military dictatorships, rampant capitalism and political repression. There was a growing sense of inequality and often the Church was perceived as being allied with the powerful. Influenced by a growing sense of social justice, and developing Marxist ideology, questioning began. During the 1960s, many church priests and theologians began to consider the impact of Christian theology on social structures, particularly in the light of the growing poor in these countries, and church organisations began to bring improvements to their living conditions. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) gave encouragement to these growing views, as there was an opportunity to bring changes to the church’s theology and practices.

In the view of liberation theologians, the work of Jesus Christ was to be interpreted not only in terms of a saviour of individuals but as a liberator of the oppressed. Jesus was born in poverty, lived as a refugee, had no home and was even buried in a borrowed tomb. His introduction to his ministry, called the ‘Nazareth Manifesto’ (Luke 4:16–21), was interpreted as a social statement about the poor and the outcast.

It was apparent that many of the liberation theologians were influenced by Marxism (although some argued it was simply a restatement of New Testament Christian communalism). This perception of a Marxist influence has been the greatest criticism of liberation theology by those both within and outside the church. Salvation was also seen in terms of individual self-actualisation. Many of these theologians drew on the New Testament Gospel of Luke, where Jesus is seen as the friend of the oppressed and outcasts in his actions as well as his teachings:

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives … LUKE 4:18

In 1970 the works of several liberation theologians were published and came to the attention of the wider church. Examples included Gustavo Gutierrez’s Teologia de la liberacion (Peru) and the writings of Leonardo Boff in the articles Jesus Cristo Libertador (Brazil). This led to the development of a formal theological position. Asian and African theologians have also picked up many of the ideals of liberation theology and applied them to their churches and communities.

Liberation theologians believe that the church manipulated God to support capitalistic structures and overemphasised God’s transcendence. Instead, they argue, God is to be found in the suffering of the poor and in the course of human history. Sin is not just a theological concept but defined in terms of man’s inhumanity to man.

The church, according to liberation theology, should be actively involved in changing the structures of society, not just in preaching and teaching. It should take a progressive stance in the face of conservative governments and hierarchical structures, and be concerned about social change and justice, equality for the poor, abuse of human rights and other institutional and attitudinal oppression. The Gospel of Christ is not just about personal salvation on an individual level, but the impetus for a change in society; its structure, inequalities and a desire to lift the status of the poor. Liberation theology also drew on the inputs of black theologians and feminist theology, and in turn influenced those movements.

Contribution

During the 1970s, in tune with the developing social trends in the world, a series of conferences and papers led to the development of liberation theology as a formal movement. By the late 1970s the Catholic Church had issued a series of statements recognising the positive aspects of liberation theology, but criticising other aspects such as the support for revolution and Marxism.

Over time the Catholic Church has objected to liberation theology’s use of Marxist ideas, its support of revolutionary movements and criticism of the church. Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI expressed their opposition to liberation theology, and in 1980 Archbishop Oscar Romero of San Salvador clashed with John Paul II while on a visit to Europe. Oscar Romero was assassinated on 24 March 1980, while celebrating Mass in a chapel near his cathedral, most likely by a right-wing assassination squad supported by the El Salvadoran government, though no one has ever been prosecuted for the crime.

While the Catholic Church has sought to suppress liberation theology, the ideas have been developed further by Protestant theologians such as Jurgen Moultmann and Alistair McIntosh, and by Catholic theologians outside of Latin America such as Hans Kung and Henri Nouwen.

Impact

Liberation theology aims to see a society where there are no differences between rich and poor, and where the people are involved in the decisions of the church. Liberation theologians are committed to social action as well as personal conversion. This is all part of Christ’s ministry to the world. This is reflected in the statements of several liberation theologians:

A theology of the Church in the world should be complemented by a theology of the world in the Church. GUSTAVO GUTIERREZ
When I give food to the poor, they call me a saint. When I ask why the poor have no food, they call me a communist. DOM HEDDER CAMARA OF BRAZIL

Liberation theology has enjoyed some favour in recent years, but may not achieve the wider acceptance of the 1970s. However, it has been an influential movement that has shown that the Christian gospel cannot be limited to the needs of the individual, but should effect change in society as well. The division between the sacred and the secular cannot be maintained. The church has too often allied itself with the rich and powerful, and liberation theology attacks this premise as being inconsistent with the Jesus of the New Testament. It gives voice to the poor and its influence is evident in many Christian people and organisations – Catholic, Protestant and ecumenical. One example is the Sojourners organisation, a group that looks to challenge traditional Christianity in maintaining political and power structures.

The election of Pope Francis, from Latin America, has prompted some to consider that he may be sympathetic to the liberation school of thought. He has lifted the suspension of Miguel D’Escoto, a liberation theologian priest suspended by Pope John Paul II. There have been some signs that this movement may be more acceptable in the Catholic Church under Francis’ papacy.

Summary

Emerging in the 1970s, liberation theology was a Marxism-influenced movement that challenged the relationship between the Catholic Church and political power groups in Latin America. Drawing from the Gospel of St Luke, liberation theologians saw the Jesus of the New Testament as a supporter of the poor rather than the rich. A theology developed that challenged the Catholic Church and sought liberation for the oppressed in Latin America. Criticised by the Catholic hierarchy, liberation theology found support by many other Christians across the world.

Feminist theology

Ideas

Christianity has developed, historically, into a patriarchal religious tradition. The first disciples were men, as were the early church leaders. Over the centuries this position has become entrenched. In many ways this reflected a particular interpretation of Christian theology, the monastic traditions of Christianity and a particular interpretation of the Bible. Eve was seen as the one who led astray her husband, and thus sin entered the world (2 Corinthians 11:3), and St Paul wrote:

Women should remain silent in the church. They are not allowed to speak 1 CORINTHIANS 14:34

Certainly, in the translation of the Bible into English, the male pronoun was used in reference to God, and Jesus is definitely a man.

Women were refused ordination and many Christian leaders had a poor view of women. They were often seen as temptresses who would lead men astray in their faith, and as having little value. Martin Luther said, ‘women are on earth to bear children’. Even the twentieth-century theologian Karl Barth has been quoted as saying ‘women are ontologically inferior to men’.

However, many women have been noted as significant people in the history of Christianity, including Hildegard of Bingen in the twelfth century and Catherine Booth, co-founder of the Salvation Army.

Women emerged as Christian leaders with the growing missionary movement of the colonial period. It was not a problem sending women to teach ‘ignorant savages’ if they were not allowed to teach men in the West. In order to do this, women were given theological training and developed their own approaches to understanding Christianity.

During the rise of women’s suffrage, many early leaders of this movement, such as Annie Besant and Susan B. Anthony, were committed religious women. There was agitation within the movement to allow women more involvement in leadership in the church, but this had little effect and eventually died down. It is probable that the church hierarchy allowed these women to be vocal to achieve their goals of temperance and prohibition, but not to use that voice within the church.

It was not until the 1960s that feminist theology really began to develop. It grew alongside similar movements such as the civil rights movement and liberation theology.

For Christian feminists, the church maintained patriarchy in two major ways. Women were not able to be ordained as priests, especially in the mainline churches such as the Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox churches. The other issue of concern was the use of male-dominated language in the Bible and liturgy of the church.

It should be noted that the issue of the ordination of women was not a problem for many churches. Pentecostalism had accepted women leaders from its beginnings in the early 1900s. Many non-conformist churches ordained women, and Catherine Booth was accepted as a preacher and founder of her organisation from the 1860s. The Uniting Church in Australia has ordained women to be ministers since its inception and Pentecostal churches have had women as pastors for many years.

It was a long struggle for women to be ordained in the Anglican Church. The Movement for the Ordination of Women (MOW) is an Australian example of the feminist movement at work within that denomination in Australia. Patricia Brennan and Patricia Hayward are two significant Australian feminist leaders from the MOW. Women were ordained to the priesthood in the Anglican Church in Australia in the 1990s; however, the Anglican Sydney Diocese does not recognise women priests, and in recent years there has been a strong move against the leadership of women in the Sydney church. The first female bishop was consecrated in Australia in 2008. The Catholic Church and Orthodox churches do not ordain women to the priesthood.

Contribution

As feminist theologians studied the Bible, they noted that only a particular interpretation had been encouraged by the church. Paul used the second creation story (Genesis 2) in his letters, but the first creation story (Genesis 1) suggests equality between men and women. They discovered that many references to women as leaders and as positive role models, such as Deborah, Ruth, Esther, Mary and Martha, had been omitted from the lectionary in use in many churches.

They also rediscovered the Gospel of Luke, as did the liberation theologians, in which Jesus is seen as ministering to the outcasts of society. In this Gospel, Jesus is a friend of women and accepts them as his disciples. Luke tells the story of Mary, Jesus’ mother, and of Mary and Martha, two of Jesus’ closest friends. It is Luke who describes the women as the first witnesses to the resurrection. In short, Jesus is considered a pro-feminist who challenged the patriarchy of his day. Thus, say feminist theologians, the church should rediscover this Jesus.

Even Paul, often considered a misogynist, describes significant women such as Priscilla, a teacher (see Acts 18:18–28 and Romans 16:3) and Phoebe, a deacon (Acts 16:1). Paul also speaks of equality in the church:

There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ. GALATIANS 3:28

Feminists argue that, just as the church broke down the issue of slavery, so it should break down the issue of patriarchy. The church should also recognise that there are feminine allusions to God in the Bible that have been ignored, and therefore the church should aim to be as gender-neutral as possible in its use of language.

Impact

Feminist theologians, such as Catholic Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, have urged Christians to question their approach to interpreting the Bible. Fiorenza coined the term ‘hermeneutics of suspicion’ to suggest that the Bible has, in the past, been interpreted from a position of male dominance. She encouraged women, and other oppressed groups, to challenge the decisions of the patriarchal church.

Some recent progress has been made. In Australia, the hymnbook Together in Song has translated many hymns into gender-neutral language, as has the Anglican Prayer Book for Australia. The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible has also been translated to use gender-neutral language where it is not specifically male or female.

Women probably comprise over 60 per cent of church attendees. Feminist theology seeks to enfranchise these women in a way they have not been before. There has been some reaction to Christian feminism in recent years, particularly among Pentecostal and fundamentalist Christians who seek to reaffirm the feminine role of women in the home as wives and mothers. Many of these Christians are uncomfortable with the identification with radical feminists of the 1960s, and the push for more liberal attitudes on reproductive issues such as birth control and abortion, as well as free expression of sexuality.

Feminist theology has had a significant influence on Christianity, and it is unlikely that the church will return to its historical patriarchy. While many women feel frustration in a slowly changing patriarchal church, change is taking place.

Summary

Feminist theology is a reaction to the male domination of the Christian church. While examples of Christian feminists can be seen through the history of the church, feminist theology as a movement grew during the 1960s. Reaction to patriarchy, a male-dominated priesthood and gender-specific language have been the battlegrounds, and feminist theology has influenced slow but significant changes in Christianity, and will continue to bring significant changes to church life and leadership.